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Final Exam: Trace the
developments of all the major concepts: Being, Non-Being,
wu-wei, nature, spontaneity, Tao; from Laozi to Kuo
Hsiang.
by Stephen Marsh
Laozi
Tao
Laozi presents the word Tao, which means
the way or “rule of life.” Laozi, who is known as the father
of Taoism, gives this word the meaning of Ultimate Truth and
presents this concept for the first time. It is imperceptible.
It cannot be seen, heard, used, or described. Laozi also gives
it the characteristics of the mother saying it is the source
of all life. It is infinite and boundless.
Being and Non-Being
This concept exists in many
schools of Taoism and is talked about in the very first
chapter of the Tao Te Ching. I include these two topics in on
category because one cannot be discussed out of relation with
the other. Laozi sees them as the same. Tao is considered to
be the “uncarved block.” Being and non-being are distinctions
we make from this block. Creation and destruction are also
said to be artificial because Tao itself cannot be created or
destroyed. All matter continues to exist and is unchanged
continually rolling between being and non-being. When you
regard something as beautiful, the definition of ugliness is
created. For the same reason good cannot exist without evil,
and high cannot exist without low. Being creates non-being.
Although the two are opposites, they necessitate each other
and are both part of the whole, or Tao. “Let there always be
non-being, so that we may see their subtlety, let there always
be being, so that we may see their outcome.”
Nature & Spontaneity
Nature says few words.
Lao Tzu tells us that Heaven and Earth are not deliberate;
they simply exist naturally. The sapling grows into a tree not
because it intends to, but because of causes internal to it.
This is the concept of spontaneity. As humans we should live
in this state, and not interfere by acting.
Wu-wei
Wu-wei simply means non-action, and
represents the ideal that the natural state of things is
preferable to the artificial. “Do not act deliberately to
achieve greatness, and greatness will be achieved.” Inherent
in this principle are several ideas about how non-action can
be applied to life. To not act is to finishes your tasks, but
not take possession of them, or try to dominate them. Laozi
explains that Heaven and Earth do not act deliberately or with
intention. We should live like this in a natural state.
Sage
Laozi’s perception of the sage is a person
who is serene and withdrawn from affairs of the world. The
sage lives at one with nature and rejects the artificial
world. He lives a spontaneous life and is without intent. He
produces things but does not take possession of them. He
understands all and penetrates all without taking action of
them. The sage embraces the one, he does not show himself, or
brag. He does not compete, and so the world cannot compete
with him.
Zhuangzi
Zhuangzi is also known as one of the founders of Taoism and
he originated many of its major principals. He develops these
themes further and more systematically than Laozi. Zhuangzi
also adds a mystical element to Taoism, one of transcending
the mundane world.
Tao
The Tao in Laozi is discusses as worldly,
but Zhuangzi gives it a transcendental form. He has a highly
developed concept of the Te as “the Tao individualized.”
Being and Non-Being
It is in non-being that the
most can be achieved. Being creates non-being. He explains
that a road becomes a road only when people walk on it and
call it a road. Before it was walked on, the road was no
different except in our minds. A beam is only small when it is
compared to a larger one. All that they truly are is part of
the Tao.
Nature & Spontaneity
Nature is not only
spontaneous; it is in a state of “constant flux.” Zhuangzi
says that we should become a companion with nature. He
stresses following your own nature. He believes in nurturing
and enjoying nature. Zhuangzi describes reality as always
changing.
Wu-wei
Becomes purely a conscious state with
Zhuangzi. Heaven and Earth do not act deliberately or with
intention. Taoists believe that the principle of wu-wei is the
most effective way to accomplish things. This is because this
belief does not simply mean doing nothing. To follow wu-wei is
to act without action and do without doing. Zhuangzi explains
that if you grasp nothing you can loose nothing. If you do not
act or possess anything, you cannot fail, and you cannot loose
anything. This is therefore the ideal way to live.
Sage
In Zhuangzi, unlike Laozi, the sage takes
on a superhuman persona. He is characterized by complete
physical and mental freedom. He rides the wind, he never gets
old, fire does not burn him and cold does not affect him. He
transcends the physical world, flying on dragons and
“wandering on the four seas.”
Tsou Yen
Being and Non-Being
The idea of yin yang
emerges. This is the idea that two opposite forces create one
another, and is similar to the Taoist ideals of being and
non-being.
Nature and Spontaneity
The yin yang is thought
to characterize all changes. The idea of one force producing
another becomes prevalent. Reality is thought of as a constant
transformation.
Philosophy of Change
The Book of Changes (I Ching) stresses constant change as a
layout of the cosmos.
Tao
The idea of the Great Ultimate is created.
It produces yin and yang, which generate the Four Forms. Out
of interaction of the cosmic forces all ideas and systems are
created.
Being and Non-Being
Activity takes the form of
cycles. These cycles lead to the development of society,
morality, and civilization. Change is said to have neither
thought nor action, because it is in a state of total
inactivity. When change is acted upon, it penetrates all
things.
Sage
The sage institutes the system of change
in order to follow the principal of nature and destiny. By
using the Book of Changes, one could predict destiny.
Wang Chung
Nature & Spontaneity
During Wang Chung’s
time, the popular belief was that of a personal heaven that
would take action in the lives of men. He disagreed with this
view stating that heaven takes no action and all events occur
spontaneously. He knew that heaven was spontaneous because it
is without desires. Wang Chung taught that man is born with
certain qualities. Some are born good and some are born evil.
Who they become is a result of their cultivation. Wang Chung
also believed heavily on spontaneity of life. He did not
attribute purpose to action. Instead he believed that things
happen because of a characteristic internal to them.
Hua-nan Tzu
Tao
Hua-nan Tzu believed that the Tao
encompassed all of heaven and earth. It causes animals and
birds to fly, and the planets to move. It brings together the
yin and the yang. He taught that Tao originated from vacuity,
from this everything was produced.
Being and Non-Being
Hua-nan Tzu describes a
story of creation of the universe in seven stages. He says
that beginning was the time when there was accumulation but no
action. There was time before that being and non-being. This
he describes as undifferentiated and unmolded Tao. Forms where
not yet visible. Being and non-being were produced from this.
Heaven was produced first and then Earth. These to joined and
produced the powers of yin and yang.
Sage
Those that are close to Tao return to
tranquility, and rest with non-action. He who understands his
nature will not be threatened by Heaven and Earth. Hua-nan Tzu
promotes rationalism like Wang Chung and says if you
understand nature you will not be fooled by strange
phenomena.
Lieh Tzu
Being and Non-being
Lieh Tzu believes there is
no ultimate beginning or end to things. One beginning is an
end to something and an end is another beginning. There is no
one who knows their order or what exists outside of these
beginnings and ending.
Wu-Wei
Lieh Tzu promoted a complete abandonment
of any effort. He takes the ideas of non-action to an extreme.
Lieh Tzu promotes egoism, and says that he would not pluck a
single hair on his head to save the entire world.
Sage
Lieh Tzu says that the men of antiquity
knew that life was short and so they did everything they could
to enjoy it. They acted however they pleased and gave into
their desires. He believes you should do what your desires
tell you to. This is in complete opposition to the belief of
most other Taoist works, which teach having no desires.
Wang Pi
Tao
The Tao is described as motherly. It
nourishes form and gives it order. He says that virtue is to
be attained through the Tao.
Being and Non-being
Wang Pi talks about what he
calls original being or pen-wu. Original being and non-being
rise above all attempts to describe it. He believes there is
an original substance, and describes it as whole and strong.
He agrees with Laozi saying that all being originated from
nonbeing.
Nature
Man should not oppose nature because, it
is the standard. Earth does not oppose Heaven, and Heaven does
not oppose Tao. He also believes that spontaneity is the
nature of things.
Sage
Wang Pi discusses an image of the sage
similar to Laozi. He says the sage does not use names to pin
down things. He does not formulate standards. He follows all
life in its natural state and does not discard anything. He
says the sage frees his mind from fear and doubt and because
of this will never be discarded.
Kuo Hsiang
Nature
Nature becomes the major concept,
replacing Tao. Kuo Hsiang does not see the need for an overall
power to give order to all things. He uses the word heaven to
describe all of nature. He emphasizes following ones own
personal nature. If you follow your own nature, you are
content wherever you go. Fire, death, and calamites do not
affect you.
Spontaneity
Spontaneity exists in all things.
Things are constantly changing and transforming due only to
this spontaneity. He believed that things exist and transform
because of properties internal to them. All things are
self-sufficient.
Sage and Wu-Wei
He believes that the sage is
someone who can transcend all distractions and distinctions of
the world. Even though he is in the middle of worldly affairs
he takes no action and still accomplishes without taking
ownership of his accomplishments. The sage is not a hermit; he
just disregards distinctions of the world.
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