COGNITIVE
IMPAIRMENT IN THOUGHT REFORM
ENVIRONMENTS
The Faculty of the College of Education
Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
by
Ronald Burks
March 4, 2002
This dissertation has been
approved for the
Department of Counseling and
Higher Education
and the College of Education
by
____________________________________________
Associate Professor,
Department of Counseling
and Higher Education
____________________________________________
Dean of the College of Education
This
work and all my publications to this point, are dedicated to those to whom the
words of a pastor, guru, mentor or spiritual master have become wounds to the
soul.
This
work is also dedicated to the memory of Louis Jolyon West, a true pioneer in
thought reform research and an example that those of us who work for human
rights must first be humans. Our care
for those whose lives have been hijacked by another’s selfishness must reflect
our humanity. So must our
research. Researchers in human rights
work must be accountable for their bias and subject their work to rigorous
examination. The cause of freedom of
thought can only be furthered with facts.
Facts are more valuable than agendas.
I hope this work furthers his ideals as well as his hope that no group
of people will ever be judged for their beliefs or practices, only held
accountable for the effects of those beliefs and practices.
This
work would not have happened or this Ph. D. degree pursued, had it not been for
my good fortune to be able to work at Wellspring Retreat and Resource
Center. Its director, Dr. Paul R.
Martin, is dedicated to rendering quality care and developing that care through
continuous research.
Through
this association, I have been privileged to meet several research professionals
who have dedicated their careers to the pursuit of human rights through freedom
of thought. Dr. Margaret Thaler Singer
who has labored in this stony field for over 50 years was gracious enough to
read the proposal when it was in process.
Dr. Michael Langone, director of American Family Foundation, a research
and information resource organization who keeps encouraging researchers on four
continents to keep up the good work.
Dr.
Peter Malinowski, whom I met when he was a first-year doctoral student in
Psychology at Ohio University and who has learned a thing or two about research
and statistics in the intervening years, read and provided valuable input. Dr. Malinowski, Dr. Steve Lynn and others
developed with us at Wellspring what has become known on both sides of the
Atlantic as the Ohio Battery, a collection of measures through which the data
this study was collected. Dr. Steven Clay, faculty at the Ohio University
College of Osteopathic Medicine was read the drafts before they saw the light
of day so my glaring errors would be less noticeable. My spouse, Vicki made sure my little errors, missing commas, wrong
words, weak sentences would be less noticeable.
And
finally, thanks to the faculty of the Counseling department, who prepare
students to be persons first, counselors second, and mirror that by
courageously being who they are. Dr.
Davis, my committee chair, and advisor demonstrates how counselor education is
done. Dr. Jerry Olsheski, Dr. George
Johanson, and Dr. Steven Patterson, who has carried on the interest of the
Department of Psychology in this field by graciously agreeing to participate in
this endeavor, have all made this a very positive learning experience.
Title Page. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter II - Review of the Literature
Introduction to the Literature
Critical Review of Relevant
Literature
Clinical Impressions of Ex –
members
Thought Reform or “Brainwashing”
Empirical Studies of Current
Members
Concerns with Studies of Current
Members
Concerns With Studies With Former
Members
Strengths and Weaknesses of the
Literature
How the Literature Supports the
Need for This Study
Operational Definition of the
Variables
Pre- and Post Treatment GPA Scores
Chapter V - Discussion of Implications, Conclusions and Recommendations
The Hypotheses of the Study:
Discussion and Comment
Veracity of Ex-member Recollections
Relative Contribution of Measures
of Affect
Discussion of Post Hoc Findings
Implications for Counselors and
Public Policy
Suggestions for Future Research
Appendix B - Consent form Used by Participants in this Study
Appendix C - Demographic Questionnaire
Appendix D - The “Ohio Battery” From Which This Study Was Taken
Appendix E - Boxplot of Post Hoc Study
List of Tables
1. Zero-Order
Partial Correlation Coefficients
2. Coefficients of Measures of Affect and a Measure of Thought
Reform
3. Comparison
of Mean Scores of Participants in Abusive Relationships. 42
Table of Figures
3. Histogram
of scores on the NIS-GMI subscale
4. Histogram
of Group Psychological Abuse scores
Cults have existed for at least as long as humans have formed associations with each other (Singer & Lalich 1994). Langone (1993) reported that due to media coverage, the public’s perception was that the number of cults seemed to increase during the 1960's. By the late 1970's some ex-members began to present themselves for mental health treatment and researchers began to relate some of ex-member symptoms to their involvement in the cult (Clark, 1979; Singer & Ofshe, 1990).
Other researchers claim to find the source of ex-member maladjustment on the characteristics of those who join cults (Spero, 1984; Levine & Salter, 1976). They assert that pre-existing psychological problems, such as anxiety, unhappiness, egotism, depression, loneliness, rejection, sadness, meaninglessness and a lack of belonging as predictors of involvement in a cult. Others suggest an unhappy childhood might lead one to join a cult (Ash 1985, Deutsch & Miller, 1983, Nicholi 1974). These researchers suggest that cult members have nothing but their parents, their pasts, their present vulnerability, or even their pre-existing psychopathology to blame for being recruited into a cult and their distress is therefore, in most cases, not related to their cult experience.
Other investigators protest that this is nothing more than blaming the victim, a practice they assert is not new to the mental health field. Herman (1992b) alleged that for 60 years the mental health establishment covertly diagnosed survivors of childhood sexual abuse with having perverted unconscious drives and that it took political pressure to embarrass, cajole and otherwise force the needed research that changed the counseling paradigm from seductress/temptress vs. weak moral fiber/ male into the predator - prey model of today. She demonstrated that racial, gender, and national origin stereotyping and insensitivities were far too common in the counseling profession for more than three quarters of a century. Cult members and ex-members are the latest social group to be marginalized by stereotypes and ignorance.
Research
on the effects of involvement in cults has been conducted into a range of issues: family system predictors of later cult
involvement (Ash, 1985; Deutsch & Miller, 1983; Maron, 1988; Nicholi, 1974;
West & Singer, 1980), possible reasons people join (Latkin, 1990), and how
cults may affect people after they leave (Conway & Siegelman, 1982; Lewis
& Bromley, 1987; Goldberg & Goldberg, 1982; Singer & Ofshe, 1990;
West & Singer, 1980; Wright & Malony, 1989). On a more sinister note, some researchers suggest (Galanti, 1993;
Hassan, 1988; Martin, 1993, West, 1990), as some in the popular press assume
(Stein, 2000), that brainwashing or other coercive persuasion occurs in cults.
This last question introduces the focus of this study. Tragedies like Jonestown and Waco suggest
that some members of cults do things they might not otherwise have done, had it
not been for their involvement with the cult (Singer & Lalich 1994), even
participate in murder (State of Ohio vs. Daniel D. Kraft, Jr.). Singer and Lalich suggest cults might have
the ability to get their members to behave in ways that violate members’ the
basic values. Membership in some groups appears to inhibit clear thinking and
thoughtful behavior. Counselors have
studied cognitive deficits and behavior disorders for nearly a century using a
variety of instruments. The Neuropsychological Impairment Scale (NIS) was
selected for this study as a measure of cognitive impairment.
What sets cults apart from
other groups that seem to strongly effect their members? Langone et al. (1992)
developed a 28-item questionnaire to assess the environment of groups, called
the Group Psychological Abuse Scale (GPA).
This enabled them and others to begin to explore the differences between
mainstream groups and those that are sometimes called cults. They developed their instrument around the
proposition that some form of thought reform, commonly known as brainwashing, a
concept which will be defined later, pervades the environment of a cult. The GPA is intended in this study as a
measure of the level or intensity of
brainwashing that occurs in a given group.
The
problem that is the focus of this study connects both the above ideas, to
explore the relationship, if any, between exposure to a thought reform system, as
measured by the GPA, to scores on a measure of cognitive impairment, the NIS.
The
events surrounding the disaster at Jonestown and the many highly publicized
events in the intervening decades, may seem to make this a moot question. Sudden migrations of whole groups and mass
suicides would seem to indicate that members of cults appear to behave in ways
that suggest a lack of critical thinking.
But, as the review of the literature will show, prominent scholars of
the study of religion and sociology disagree (Maloney 1994; Barker 1995). They blame the public’s negative perception
of cults, or New Religious Movements, pre-existing psychopathology in the ex
members themselves, or even the influence of organizations established to
assist members of cults and their families for any ill effects reported by
ex-members. In fact, astonishingly
little organized empirical investigation into the cult phenomenon has actually
occurred (Aronoff, et al. 2000).
This
study seeks to explore the relationship between a dynamic of organizations
commonly thought of as cults, thought reform and cognitive function of their
members. HA: The intensity of
thought reform environments in groups is correlated the level of cognitive impairment in ex-members as measured
by a standard neuropsychological test.
This
hypothesis is an alternative to the null HO: Intensity of thought
reform environment does not correlate with level of cognitive impairment.
A human rights issue. The literature reviewed in chapter II will indicate that significant numbers of the population of this country are involved in various ways with various kinds of cults. If the large numbers of individuals indicated below are being systematically deprived of skills vital to critical thinking, serious questions about violations of basic human rights in cults need to be asked. Beyond that, the cost to society and perhaps even to national security might be enormous. Cults and their effects need to be studied.
A social issue.
Cults are a significant social issue. Martin (1993) estimated that between two and three million people who were, at that time between the ages of 18 and 25 had been involved in cults. The International Cult Research Group conducted a survey for the American Family Foundation in 1993 that projected that two to five million people in the United States are involved in cults at any given time. Others estimate that as many as twenty million people could be involved. The extreme range is accounted for by the difficulty in counting the number of groups themselves. Estimates range from two to five thousand groups that are alleged to be cultic (Martin 1993). Using the most conservative estimates, cults, if they are were a disease, they would be the number four most common malady affecting the American population.
Assuming that cults have no actual negative impact on their members, the social stigma alone that the ex-member has to face can be emotionally emaciating. According to the statistics above, between one and 7 percent of the population of the United States is facing a life of secrecy and shame having to hide elements of their past from prospective employers and potential mates. It would seem that a social phenomenon of this magnitude should be studied.
A legal issue.
The
impact of this research and, hopefully more comprehensive studies that follow,
on the legal rights of victims of thought reform as well as groups alleged to
have caused harm may be incalculable.
At present, those engaged in the recovery of damages or charged with
crimes related to cultic influence must have sufficient resources to hire
expert witnesses in a case-by-case basis.
In effect, victims are required to prove they were impaired in order to
obtain either just recompense or mercy from the court. This places judges in the legally awkward
position of requiring either victims or alleged perpetrators to prove their
innocence. The law recognizes the
concept of reduced responsibility due to undue influence and a growing body of
cases exist that could contribute to legal precedent. The paucity of general research into the dynamics of cults leaves
judges, attorneys and those they must judge and represent in a precarious
position. Clearly, more knowledge in
this area would have the benefit of increasing the likelihood of fair treatment
by the legal system of both ex-members and the groups themselves. Such important issues, at the core of this
country’s system of justice, will and should be settled by the collective
contribution of many studies.
Ayella
(1990) asserts that research into the cult phenomenon is difficult. Critics of
research into cult dynamics assert that thought reform or brainwashing is a
fictitious concept and they assert that it has never been subjected to scientific
scrutiny in controlled, laboratory conditions (Barker 1995). No experimental research has been conducted
since the early 1960's in this field because modern research ethics do not
permit it. Ironically, thought reform
researchers themselves realized the high potential for lasting harm to research
participants (Singer & Lalich, 1994) and influenced modern principles of
research ethics. Robert Lifton (1997),
who initially identified the proponents of modern thought reform theory,
testified for the plaintiffs in litigation brought by research participants
against Central Intelligence Agency-supported brainwashing experiments by a
Canadian psychiatrist. It is
reasonable to conclude that if brainwashing exists, it must be harmful. It
would also be hard to define.
The
practical impossibility of gathering time zero data is another serious
limitation of research on cults. It is
not possible to measure the cognitive function of persons before they join. As the literature review will show, anyone
from any background could potentially join a cult at some time in life. Cults or any other groups that rely on
recruiting are understandably reluctant to assist with research into their
newest members or interested potential members. The risk of “turning them off”
is too great. Reports of longer term members are likely to be colored by bias
in favor of the group. Research must
depend on recollections of former members, who might be biased against the
group due to the fact that they chose to leave.
Another
problem with research using former members is the impossibility of determining
the total population of ex-members and finding a satisfactorily random sample
of them. Negative stereotypes about the
kind of person that joins a cult would logically make it unlikely that
ex-members would be interested in identifying themselves unless they felt they
had something to gain in doing so.
Those
ex-members who do speak out appear to fall into two sometimes overlapping
categories, those who feel they have been exploited in some way and wish to get
back at the cult either in the media or in court and those who are so
emotionally wounded by their experience they sought treatment for it. Neither group could be said to be non-biased
reporters. Further, critics of cult researchers complain that those who treat
ex-members of cults influence how ex-members recall the conditions in the
group. While any study could not
possibly address all of these concerns, this study attempts to address this
last source of bias, treatment effect in its design.
This
study is based on the responses of individuals who have presented themselves
for treatment at Wellspring Retreat and Resource Center, a residential
treatment center that specializes in the treatment of ex-members of cults and
those from one-on-one relationships that have similar characteristics. Those persons however, should be seen to be
self-selected from the total population of ex-members of cults, in several
ways.
First,
participants felt their problems related to the cult were sufficiently serious
to warrant traveling to Southeast Ohio from as far away as Europe and
Australia. No participants in the study
were legally mandated into treatment.
All participated in treatment and the study by their own expressed
choice. The possibility of bias against
the cult by participants must be taken into account.
Second,
the difficulty of finding Wellspring at all could be seen as a significant
delimitation of this study. Most people find out about Wellspring through
various networks of ex-members. In
addition, while Wellspring has fairly extensive coverage in the media, on the
other hand, that coverage is highly targeted.
Wellspring has been featured only in programs that reach restricted
audiences, such as daytime talk shows, prime time documentary news shows and
public service programs on state-run media in several countries. A fairly large percentage found Wellspring
on the Internet. Presumably, large
demographic sectors of ex-members without ex-member contact, interest in talk
shows, world affairs or access to the Internet would never know of its
existence. Clearly, the results of this
study could not be generalizable to all ex-members of cults, and certainly not
to all current members.
The
results of any study of ex-members who seek either treatment or a forum to
network with other ex-members would presumably exclude two important and
impossible to measure groups, those ex-members who feel they have benefited
from their cult experience and moved on for one reason or another and those
members who remain in cults because they feel it is in their best
interest. In other words, not only is
the sample biased, it excludes those whose experience may have been positive.
On
the other hand, this study intends to use data supplied by ex-members of cults
who are impaired enough to seek treatment.
It would seem reasonable that those who might have been harmed by some
phenomena should be the first to be studied.
Cult.
For the purpose of this study, the term cult is defined operationally as any group to which an individual in this study belonged, that had characteristics that participant rated in such a way as to achieve a score on the Group Psychological Abuse Scale greater than 84. This cutoff score indicates that conditions in the group were likely to have been a thought reform system and that the ex-member had been exposed to some degree of brainwashing.
An
operational definition is necessary (Aronoff et al., 2000) since the word cult
is thought to be pejorative. The word
cult is used loosely to refer to a subculture, that is, any group outside the
mainstream of a cult-ure. The word cult
cannot be applied to a group without assuming a negative connotation. This study
does not propose to sample from groups only because they are out of the
mainstream. No individuals were part of
this study simply because they thought their former group was “bad” or harmful. This study assumes that there are many harmful and dangerous
groups that do not fit the profile that is of interest in this study. In addition, groups could exist that are
generally benign that would be included.
The
confusion is magnified by the incredible diversity of beliefs of groups that
could be called cults even under the very restrictive definition proposed
above. By far the most familiar are
those groups with some form of religious perspective. These could be classified by that mainstream world religion that
has the predominant influence on their beliefs.
For
instance, the most widely known category of cults in the west probably includes
those groups whose primary influence is from Christianity. They are referred to a “Bible based” groups. These constitute a broad spectrum of belief
that would include far-right fundamentalist groups to those groups that embrace
a range of concepts from Judaism, Animism, Hinduism, Buddhism, or Islam, while
keeping a majority of emphasis on the Bible.
A
second broad category contains groups referred to as “Eastern based.” Their
main body of belief is adopted from Indo-Asian religious traditions. Considerable overlap may occur between these
categories as groups borrow freely from both East and West.
A
third category consists of political/ideological groups that are characterized
by allegiance to a given geopolitical, racial, or social perspective (Langone,
1993). Fourth would be the
business/motivational groups that generally tend to use the work of popular
sales motivational speakers as more or less sacred writings. Fifth are the psychology/counseling/
psychotherapy groups that form around a strong, charismatic mental health
professional who violates client boundaries and numerous other ethical
constraints, usually forming therapeutic communities based on their unique
perspectives (Hochman, 1990; Singer, Temerlin, and Langone, 1990).
The developers of the GPA (Langone, Dole & Wiltrout, 1992) were not interested in assessing the comparative benefits or deficits in a given group’s beliefs. The theoretical foundation of the instrument is the interplay between belief and practice that fits a relatively narrow perspective they referred to as thought reform or “brainwashing.”
Brainwashing.
Thought reform or
“brainwashing” refers to a specific set of procedures or conditions this study
alleges to be used by cults. Initially
described by Robert Lifton (1997) in his study of Korean prisoners of war,
these conditions are listed in the next chapter. Lifton found that individuals exposed to these methods were far
more likely to be more compliant with the demands of the interrogators that
those who were physically beaten or abused. Ten percent of those exposed to the
procedures, an astonishingly high number given the times and the prevailing
patriotism of pilots and others who actually made public “confessions” to
outrageous allegations. Many actually
had temporary feelings that they had “done the right thing.”
The
term thought reform comes from a speech given by Mao Tse-Tung during the years
of communist party struggle against Nationalist forces. Speaking against dissidents within the
party, he said, “these persons are doing counterrevolutionary deeds because
they are thinking counterrevolutionary thoughts. Therefore, we must reform their thoughts” (Singer & Lalich, 1994). In Chinese, the
concept of thought reform was represented by the characters, hsi, to reform or cleanse and nao, thought or brain or mind. Hsi
nao could also be literally translated, “wash brain.” American journalist Edward Hunter made the
connection and invented the English word “brainwashing” to describe the
techniques used in the many Thought Reform camps scattered throughout China
(Hassan, 1988).
The
term brainwashing is used loosely in popular exchange to indicate some
interrogation process that presumably makes the brain a blank slate with all
prior memories removed. This notion
makes for entertaining plot lines for Hollywood but adds little to
understanding of cults, or other contexts where these techniques are used. This study uses the historical definition
described in the next chapter and will use the less esoteric term, thought
reform (Lifton 1997). The connection
of the GPA to a recognizable, nonreligious, nonpartisan construct made it a
logical choice to operationalize the definition of “cult.”
Cognitive Impairment.
Cognitive
impairment in this study refers to a range of factors related to cognitive
function as measured by the Global Measure of Impairment scale of the
Neuropsychological Impairment Scale, NIS (O’Donnell, DeSoto, Desoto, &
Reynolds, 1994a), an instrument developed to monitor progress or deterioration
in cognitive function in individuals with a variety of organic conditions. Use of this instrument with a population,
suspected, but not known to suffer from organic conditions has some precedent
(Avants, Margolin, McMahon, & Kosten, 1997; Losasso, 1999). It has been shown to correlate well with
more difficult to administer measures (O’Donnell, et al., 1994a) and its self
report form allowed much more data to be gathered than with traditional
intelligence measures. It is described in detail in chapter III.
This
study proposes to investigate the connection between the intensity of a thought
reform environment to which a participant was exposed and their corresponding cognitive
impairment. While a causal link between
the two could not be established without more controlled experimental
conditions, in the event a strong association is shown, further research is
indicated. A response from the
healthcare community should be no different from that brought about from any
other consumer concern, i.e. automotive safety or suspected toxic waste in the
environment.
Aronoff
et al. (2000) found that the literature on cults is filled with varied
personal, political, and scientific agendas.
Research into this field is complicated by the fact that not all who
study cults agree that there is a problem in need of study. Writers who seem to support the intellectual
and behavioral diversity that cults represent (e.g., Alexander, 1983; Anthony
& Robbins, 1992; Coleman, 1984; Wright & Malony, 1989) refer to cults
as New Religious Movements or NRM’s, a neutral term without the negative
connotations connected with the term cult (Aronoff, et al. 2000). They assert
that they have the same First Amendment rights to freedom of expression
guaranteed to any other group. (e.g.,
Alexander, 1983; Anthony & Robbins, 1992; Wright & Malony, 1989) and
point out the positive effects cults have on participants (Galanter, Rabkin,
Rabkin, & Deutsch, 1979).
The
critics of cults view the cult phenomenon as essentially a human rights
issue. They consider groups that use
techniques they recognize as similar to thought reform (Lifton, 1997) are
violating the basic human rights of their members. They assert that thought
reform processes appear to be related to lasting psychopathology after
individuals leave the group.
The
critics of cults (e.g., Glass, Kirsch, Parris, 1977; Martin, 1993; Singer &
Ofshe, 1990; West, 1993; West & Martin, 1994), point out that ex-members they have interviewed often experience
a wide range of psychological symptoms severe enough to impair social and
occupational function, including depression, anxiety, dissociation, passivity,
guilt, and panic attacks (Singer & Ofshe, 1990).
The
electronic database Psyclnfo was used to locate pertinent books and
articles. The keyword search included the following terms: cultism, brainwash,
brainwashing, mind control. The names
of authors who frequently publish articles in the field were also included in
the search.
Introduction to the Literature
This
search uncovered a large number of articles from both perspectives presented above
that appear to be opinion pieces, quoting favorable sources and making
assertions that stimulate further discussion but not necessarily
knowledge. More research-oriented
articles are often based solely on interviews that gather what is essentially anecdotal
data. With few exceptions, studies are also flawed by the use unique
instruments designed only for the study with questionable validity and
reliability (Aronoff et al., 2000).
Access
to subjects for study further complicates research on cults. Studies reported below will suggest that
current members of cults experience satisfactory levels of mental health and
are well adjusted. Aronoff et al.
(2000) caution that studies of current members might consist of subjects who
were hand selected by their leaders to give the best possible impression of the
group, or who might hide their difficulties in order to avoid negative
repercussions, either immediate, from their leaders or eternal, since reporting
problems might violate the cosmology of the group.
Studies
with ex-members may also be biased in several ways. The experimenter may have been a member of a cult and might be
more sympathetic to ex-members who report negative experiences. Ex-members who are undergoing treatment may
experience more negative symptoms than other ex-members. Counseling itself has been shown to have
negative effects on some clients (Crown, 1983; Lambert & Bergin,
1994).
Lack
of relevant control or non-cult groups is an ongoing weakness of cult
research. Lewis and Bromley (1987)
reported a range of percentages of ex-members who experienced clinically
significant symptoms. The low end was
27%, apparently quite high. It must be
remembered, however, that the base rate for clinically significant symptoms in
the general population is a considerable 17% (National Comorbidity Study:
Kessler et al. 1994.
Another
complicating factor in research on cults is that no reliable estimate of the
total number of people involved with cultic groups exists. Conventional polling procedures are of
little use since members of cults do not see themselves as members of
cults. Estimates can only be derived
from local surveys and polls. For
instance, the best estimate is that between two and five million Americans have
been involved in cults. This figure was derived from surveys of members of new
religious and parareligious movements in San Francisco and Montreal (Bird &
Reimer, 1982), surveys of high school students in the San Francisco Bay area
(Zimbardo & Hartley, 1984), a recent survey (1993) conducted by the ICR
Survey Research Group for the American Family Foundation, and a survey of 1,396
primary care physicians members of Pennsylvania Medical Society, 2.2% of whom
reported having had a family member involved with a cultic group (Lottick,
1993). Martin (1993) used two other surveys to estimate that there may be
anywhere from 2,000 to 5,000 cultic groups in America, with as many as two to
20 million members. Martin’s (1993) is far higher than previous estimates, but
is based on two different university surveys.
Even using the most conservative estimates, cults are worthy of study.
This
review of the literature will examine studies of current members of cults,
studies of former members and then turn to the literature that addresses the
dynamics of how cults work.
Critical Review of Relevant Literature
Clinical Impressions of Ex – members
Singer and Offshe (1990) identified areas they felt were common characteristics of ex members of cults. Most ex‑cult members Singer interviewed struggl